Note: This is the second article in a series about fire apparatus crashes by Greg Rogers.
In our previous article, “Fire Apparatus Crash Reduction,” we identified that apparatus crashes are an ongoing problem in the fire service and that they hurt both firefighters and the general population. These incidents also serve to degrade the public’s trust in the fire service. In this article, we’ll explore some of the things that make responding to emergencies so dangerous.
There are multiple factors that contribute to increased collision risk for fire apparatus. There are design, engineering, human and policy factors involved. While we are limited to some extent with the design and engineering factors (more on that later), we have considerable control over the human and policy-based factors.
Policy and Training Factors
The foundation of fire apparatus safety is proper training and experience. Apparatus operator training should be based on NFPA 1010, the Standard on Professional Qualifications for Firefighters, promulgated by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). NFPA 1010 requirements are covered in more detail in the previous article.
Policy compliance. Note that due to the NFPA’s consolidation plan, apparatus operator requirements that were previously covered in NFPA 1002, Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications, have been merged into NFPA 1010, Standard on Professional Qualifications for Firefighters.
Your policies and training programs should comply with both your state law and NFPA standards. This helps ensure apparatus operators understand the requirements and demonstrate they can safely operate their rigs before being allowed to drive to emergencies. Starting out with effective standards-based training provides operators with the knowledge and skills necessary for safe operation.
But what happens after that initial training? Does your department have a plan for continued training to keep those skills sharp? Many states require a certain amount of annual in-service training to ensure apparatus operators maintain their proficiencies.
Time and experience. One aspect of driver training should include spending more time behind the wheel. Consider the difference between fire apparatus operators and other truck drivers. Most commercial drivers are behind the wheel for several hours per shift. On the other hand, firefighters tend to drive for a few minutes at a time, several times per shift. While experience is not based solely on how much time you spend doing something or how many times you do it, there is certainly a correlation between repetition, time and skills.
At a minimum, this time spent driving should be periodically observed and evaluated by an officer or instructor. If you are a company officer and your engineer’s driving skills aren’t as sharp as they should be, it is your responsibility to provide feedback and training opportunities to improve them. Sloppy or unprofessional driving is unacceptable and should be corrected immediately.
The question of numbers. Staffing is a policy-related issue that can also affect apparatus safety. In an urban setting with a career-staffed department, rigs are commonly sent out the door with at least three personnel on board. But in departments with staffing limitations, a unit might respond with only one person — the driver. This increases risk due to several reasons.
While staffing issues can be costly and complicated to address, departments should do everything in their power to prevent apparatus from responding with only one firefighter. A second set of eyes is one benefit here, but adding another person or two to the rig also adds judgement which can serve to influence behavior in a positive way. Sometimes tunnel vision prevents the engineer from acting rationally and a simple, “Hey, slow down a little bit,” is enough to change the driver’s behavior. Additionally, a driver responding alone to an incident is more likely to be preoccupied with thoughts and actions that are better handled by someone else.
Ideally, an officer should be riding up front and be responsible for the overall conduct and safety of the company. Aside from overseeing the company’s operations, the officer should also be answering the radio, operating the siren and focusing on incident needs. This frees up the driver’s hands and mind to focus on one thing — driving.
Human Factors
Like any other risk-related issue, human involvement influences risk and tends to increase it. As long as we have humans operating fire apparatus, human behavior and human error will contribute to crashes.
A “response time culture.” Aside from skills and training, there are other human factors at play here. If your department has a culture that puts heavy emphasis on response times, that pressure might influence a driver to take undue risks. This is an area where everybody loses. While it’s true that response times can affect the outcome of many incidents, there are few ways to reduce time once the apparatus leaves the station. If you want to reduce response times, increasing speed is not the way to do it. Yes, driving faster may shave a few seconds off, but at what cost?
The best areas to focus on to reduce your overall response times include call processing time, notification time, turnout time and overall readiness. If your response area is large, has heavy traffic, or is insufficiently covered by existing stations, your department should explore other solutions such as mutual assistance agreements or organizational restructuring to solve the problem. Some of these solutions are more complicated than others and require buy-in from multiple parties, and some of these ideas may be unpopular with your membership or political leaders, but fire departments should put community needs ahead of internal discord.
Tolerating aggressive drivers. People’s individual qualities also affect behavior and actions. Simply put, some apparatus operators lack the professionalism or maturity to operate their rigs safely. There’s a good chance you’ve ridden with someone or know of someone who drives too fast, takes too many chances and disregards laws and regulations when responding to calls. This is the aggressive operator who drives with excessive speed, refusing to pause at intersections.
Drivers like this are all too common, and frankly, they baffle me. Most firefighters would never tolerate blatant disregard for safety on the fireground, so why are they willing to accept it on the road? These drivers have no place in the fire service and if you have them in your department, you need to correct their behavior. If the behavior cannot be corrected, the member should be reassigned to a position that does not require driving. Looking the other way is not acceptable because what you condone, you promote. If you’re a fire service leader and you are allowing this type of behavior, you might as well be encouraging it.
Nervous, insecure drivers. Some operators are excellent drivers until a call comes in. Then, in true Jekyll-and-Hyde fashion, they go from responsible and safe to rattled and dangerous. For various reasons, some firefighters become nervous when a call comes in. This is a problem on many levels, but when it comes to operating fire apparatus, it’s simply unacceptable. If someone isn’t comfortable responding to calls, they shouldn’t be driving.
This problem might be correctible if department leaders work with drivers to find solutions to this behavior. But the fact is, operating fire apparatus is not for everyone, so if your department’s staffing allows for it, limit the driving to the most proficient operators. I’m not implying that an inexperienced member should be forbidden from working towards becoming a driver. We always need to develop new drivers, but the selection process should be more involved than simply asserting that “everyone drives.”
“First water” mentality. Some of this crazy driving goes back to the early days of the organized fire service. Back then, fire companies would race to a scene to claim “first water.” In a time when multiple, independent fire companies served our cities, the company claiming “first water” would be the only one compensated for their work.
As time progressed, many fire departments began receiving funding through taxes and other fees so the first water race shifted from economic imperative to tradition. If Engine 1 and Engine 3 were responding to the same fire, they might try to beat each other to the scene for nothing more than bragging rights. The stakes were even higher if you were to beat a company to their first-due area. Sadly, this is still happening today.
If this mentality persists in your department, stop it. That’s it — just stop. The bragging rights aren’t worth the risk to human life.
Apparatus Design and Related Factors
Modern fire apparatus is not your grandfather’s fire truck. It’s taller, longer, heavier and even has a roof! Over the past few generations, industry needs and safety requirements have inspired advances in apparatus technology, leading to changes that are mostly good, but can come at a cost.
Equipment and visibility. In some rigs, visibility from the driver’s seat can be obstructed by a number of things. Ironically, mirrors can reduce visibility and increase risk. In order to reduce blind spots, today’s mirrors are larger than they were in the past, but these can obstruct the driver’s view of approaching traffic at intersections. Newer rigs also frequently feature larger A-pillars. While these improve a cab’s structural integrity in the event of a rollover, they also tend to obstruct the driver’s view. Drivers should be trained to lean forward and back when approaching intersections to check the blind spots created by mirrors and other vehicle features. This is sometimes called “rocking and rolling.”
We also have a bunch of necessary equipment riding around with us in the cab. There are mobile data terminals (MDTs), thermal imaging cameras, flashlights and gas meters — just to name a few. Depending on how this equipment is mounted or stored, it may block the driver’s view. The closer an object is to the driver, the larger the blind spot will be. Most states have laws prohibiting objects from obstructing or obscuring a driver’s view and a fire apparatus is not necessarily exempt.
When purchasing and outfitting fire apparatus, consider the driver’s field of view. Consider the various cab and seating options offered by manufacturers and try to choose wisely. Sit in the cab of one of your current rigs and identify where improvements can be made before outfitting your new apparatus. If you’re having a truck built, take time during the construction and outfitting processes to check for potential visibility issues. Look for mounting and storage solutions that reduce blind spots. Good visibility is as important as a good braking system.
Vehicle stability. Stability is another significant factor in apparatus safety. The taller the truck, the higher its center of gravity. To prevent rollovers, NFPA 1900 requires apparatus to be equipped with stability control systems. The overall design and engineering of the truck can also affect stability. Today’s custom apparatus chassis are designed with the engine mounted as close to the ground as possible. This lowers the center of gravity and reduces rollover risk. There have also been advances in fire pump technology, from weight reduction to lower placement on the vehicle.
It should come as no surprise that water also plays a role in how these rigs handle. Your pumper may be carrying anywhere from 500 to 1,000 gallons of nature’s most versatile extinguishing agent. You probably know that water weighs about 8.34 pounds per gallon, so 500 gallons weighs 4,170 pounds. That’s over two tons. Now, consider that it’s a fluid and fluids are always in motion. This movement affects vehicle stability. Even though water tanks are baffled, fluid affects and is affected by apparatus movement. While heavier, a full water tank is less impacted than a partially full one because the water has less room to slosh around. We generally don’t drive around with half-empty tanks but there are times this may occur. Whenever possible, top off your water tank before leaving the scene.
For the truck company folks, the weight of the aerial makes the rig top-heavy. Placing thousands of pounds of metal atop a 10-foot-tall truck makes the vehicle’s center of gravity higher than that of a pumper. While this weight doesn’t move around like water does, it has a significant impact on the stability of the rig. Drivers need to be aware of this as they negotiate curves and take turns. Even with 10 wheels on the ground, rollovers can still occur.
Vehicle weight. Both weight and weight distribution affect braking and overall apparatus stability. Departments should use care when outfitting their rigs, paying attention to both the gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) and the gross axle weight rating (GAWR). The GVWR is the overall maximum allowable weight of the apparatus and includes all equipment, fluids and personnel. The GAWR is how much each axle is capable of safely carrying. If an apparatus is improperly loaded, it could be within the GVWR but exceed one of the GAWRs.
Overloading the rear axle can cause understeer, a condition where the front tires lack sufficient traction to steer the vehicle, particularly in slippery conditions. Overloading either axle can cause issues with braking. If an axle is overloaded, the other axle(s) may be underloaded. An underloaded axle may lack sufficient traction for the brakes to stop the vehicle safely. An overloaded axle can also lead to overheated brakes.
Departments should ensure their apparatus has a sufficient margin between the vehicle’s unladen weight and the GVWR to allow for equipment, water and personnel. When laying out the rig’s equipment storage, care must be taken to distribute the load according to the GAWR. If you are purchasing a new apparatus, ensure that it can carry the equipment it needs to without exceeding the GVWR. Mass plays a significant role in vehicle stability and dynamics, so set these rigs up for safe operation before they’re even on the road.
Geographic factors. Every so often, we see reports of collisions involving two apparatus. For various reasons, these collisions often occur at intersections. You should be aware of other companies responding to the call and where they are likely to come from.
I used to respond to an apartment complex that was served by three different fire departments. We knew the truck company from a neighboring district would likely cross paths with our apparatus at a particular intersection and almost without fail, that was the case. Having this awareness, we would approach that intersection carefully to reduce our risk.
Intersections. When approaching a controlled intersection and meeting other emergency vehicles, operators should yield the right of way to whichever vehicle has the green light. This is a simple solution to a complicated problem and should be standard practice. It eliminates confusion, making things safer for all parties involved. Of course, that means all agencies need to be aware of and follow this guideline.
Speaking of intersections, if your department uses traffic preemption devices, don’t assume they are going to work every time. Depending on the equipment you have, there can be limitations to its operation. If sensors are obstructed, they may not receive the signal from your emitter. Likewise, ice, snow or other debris on your emitter may block the signal. Another reason your light may not turn green is that another apparatus is approaching the intersection, and the system is giving the other truck the green light, forcing your signal to remain red. Be on the lookout for this.
Loud sirens. Sirens sound like sirens and when yours is on, you can’t hear anyone else’s very well. Apparatus equipped with air brakes will also have air horns. While air horns can be highly effective in warning motorists of your approach, they can also be helpful in warning other responders. The sharp sound of an emergency vehicle air horn cuts through other sounds, including sirens. Use your air horn when approaching intersections and if you hear an air horn that isn’t yours, be alert for other apparatus.
Speed Kills
Speed is a factor in many apparatus crashes. This is where vehicle stability, human behavior and visibility combine to create a perfect storm. Increased speed reduces the time you have to identify and react to changing conditions. Speed also increases stopping distance and exaggerates steering responses. In short, driving too fast influences multiple factors that increase collision and rollover risk.
The simplest solution here is to slow down. I’m not advocating for a lack of urgency, but apparatus operators need to use speed wisely to prevent crashes. The speed an emergency vehicle operator drives should be based on an ongoing risk assessment to ensure that their actions are appropriate and safe for the circumstances.
Summary
Preventing and reducing fire apparatus crashes should be a leading initiative in all fire departments. It is important to understand all the factors that can lead to a collision and to address them as soon and as frequently as possible. Department policy and culture, individual abilities and behavior, apparatus design and outfitting all need to be considered when working to improve apparatus-related safety for firefighters and the public.
Your firefighters and community deserve a department whose principles are rooted in saving lives without harming others.
